The Medical History portal, about all things medieval and well worth a visit if you haven’t already been there, very kindly invited me to write a guest post for them – which I duly did. It can be found here:
Medieval marriage
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Category Archives: medieval
Still stitching but with a detour to slander…
I’m still stitching my swirly dragon but have had to divert to knit several reindeer, a sleigh and Santa for the telephone box to be completed by the beginning of December – (don’t ask, it’s just best if I eventually post a picture.)
Medieval English work is principally associated with ecclesiastical embroidery but we have also looked at book covers, gloves, bags and pouches, and of course, boxes. These small personal items may have been made by professionals or in a domestic setting. I must admit to have a developing thing for 16th century sweet bags which were a development from my medieval meanderings!
I am particularly enthralled by William Huggins, Huggans or even Hogan, the Keeper of the Gardens at Hampton Court, presenting Elizabeth I with an annual New Year’s gift of sweet bags – these may have been quite small, as they could have been to contain potpurri to keep some of the less pleasant smells of court life at nose length. He began making his gifts in 1561 and continued until his death in 1588, whereupon Mrs Huggans is found listed as the annual gift giver. William also made sweet waters for Elizabeth.
The family originated in Norfolk. He can be found as a scholar with his brothers at Cambridge. He left without taking a degree and entered Lincoln’s Inn to train as a lawyer – rather than undertaking a horticultural course somewhere! In 1555 he was elected to parliament. It seems that his family’s patron was the 4th Duke of Norfolk (who was, coincidentally, married Thomas Audley’s only surviving daughter, Margaret).
Hogan had only the one job that has made its way into the history books – Keeper of Hampton Court Gardens, a place incidentally which Elizabeth I was very fond of. In 1564 he wrote to William Cecil. In May 1565 he received a grant of lands specifically to help pay his debts. He transferred them to Francis Barker, a Merchant Taylor. And then in 1588 he died…
There’s much more to be found out about William’s ‘brother’, John Appleyard, who was married to William’s sister, Elizabeth. It was on his behalf that William had written to Cecil in 1564 on the matter of a privateering venture. In 1567 the connection got William into a spot of bother when Appleyard agitated against the Earl of Leicester while he was staying with William at Hampton Court. At which point a light went on in my head! John Appleyard was one of Amy Robsart’s half brothers. And in 1567 he claimed that the jury, which found her death to have been accidental, had been bribed.
So, in one short step we’ve moved from embroidered bags and sweet water to bribery and murder, not to mention shadowy conspirators. Appleyard was interviewed, as indeed was William Huggans – who knew nothing. Appleyard admitted that he had slandered the Earl of Leicester (which was probably a very sensible decision under the circumstances). William was required to answer the following questions according to Cecil’s own notes:
How often did John Appleyard inform you of any offers made to him to provoke him to prosecute matter against my lord of Leicester? Where were you when Appleyard went over the Thames to speak with one that came to move him in such a purpose? Who came to fetch Appleyard? How many persons did you see on the other side of the Thames with Appleyard? Did Appleyard stand or walk whilst he communed with the party? &c., &c.
(‘Cecil Papers: 1567’, in Calendar of the Cecil Papers in Hatfield House: Volume 1, 1306-1571( London, 1883), British History Online https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-cecil-papers/vol1/pp342-352 [accessed 13 November 2024].)
I’m not sure how to discuss embroidered household textiles after that massive diversion. Bed hangings, cushions and table carpets aren’t going to have quite the same impact and I’m not sure that even I can wedge heraldic embroidery, including banners, ceremonial clothing, regalia, funeral palls, surcoats and horse accessories, into the tribulations of Amy Robsart’s extended family.
For further reading on medieval embroidery, rather than the matter of Amy Robsart ( Chris Skidmore, Death and the Virgin is an excellent read on the subject) other than Tanya Benham and Jan Messent, and the V and A catalogue of their Opus Anglicanum exhibition:
– A.G. Christie’s English Medieval Embroidery, was until recently, the book on the medieval methods of embroidery. It can be accessed on line, which is very handy indeed:
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20386/20386-h/20386-h.htm
And if you’re feeling particularly inspired Mary Symons Anrobus and Louisa Preece’s book dating from 1928 is also worth a look:
https://archive.org/details/needleworkthroug00antr
And last but not least, a real book rather than an online facsimile , Barbara Snook’s English Embroidery, published during the 1970s by Mills and Boon.
Medieval embroidered bags and purses
Purses could be used for carrying personal goods, for giving money to the poor – as in an alms purse or aumônière-, they could be used for storing religious relics or to carry seals.
The purses which survive are often heavily embroidered. They may have been produced by professional embroiderers, nuns or by a woman with sufficient funds to be able to buy the silks to make the purse herself. The alms purse of Marie de Picquigny (France 1342) worked on linen in silk and gold thread is on view at the Musee de Moyen Age, Cluny Paris. It would seem that women’s purses were most likely to be of the drawstring variety.
They often depict a couple engaged in the pursuit of courtly love. In the first example the young man is offering his companion a ring while in the second the couple are playing a game with a hood. Stylised oak trees provide a garden setting – and a reminder of allegorical gardens of romance. The Lovers’ Purse dates from about 1340.
The Dominican Abbey at Poissy allowed its nuns to embroider purses for their visitors. Christine de Pizan’s daughter was nun at the convent and a companion to Princess Marie. The nuns were still producing embroidery when Mary Queen of Scots was a prisoner in England during the sixteenth century. She ordered coifs with gold and silver crowns on them (Owen, p.386).
In 1317 when Queen Jeanne of Burgundy was crowned her accounts show the purchase of 12 embroidered purses, 6 embroidered velvet purses, 6 embroidered samite purses and 16 other purses – most of which she must have given away as gifts (Farmer 87-88). Mahout of Artois gave away a purse embroidered with pearls in 1319. (Ibid, 88). Farmer returns to the topic in The Silk Industries of Medieval Paris (2016).
It should be noted that the production of highly decorated bags did not end in England with the Reformation. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were notable for highly decorated sweet bags.
https://threegoldbees.com/projects/embroidered-lovers-purse
Farmer, Sharon. ‘Small Mercery Goods,’ in Medieval Clothing and Textiles, volume 2. Gale R. Owen-Crocker, Robin Netherton (eds). (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2006)pp. 87-89
Owen, Mrs Henry & Egerton, Mary Margaret. The Illuminated Book of Needlework. Comprising Knitting, Netting, Crochet, and Embroidery. By Mrs. Henry Owen. Preceded by a History of Needlework, Including an Account of the Ancient Historical Tapestries. Edited by the Countess of Wilton. (London, 1847)
Volume 1
The Fishmongers’ Pall
The Fishmonger’s Pall was made specifically for the merchant’s guild, for use at the funeral of company members as the beginning of the sixteenth century . It is made from Italian cloth of gold and the four side panels which are linen are embroidered with silver gilt and silks. Unsurprisingly the embroidery has a ‘fishy’ theme. St Peter – the fisherman, appears at the top and bottom ends of the pall and there’s a mermaid and a merman as well as dolphins and the guild’s coat of arms. It was described in 1862 by the Gentleman’s Magazine as ‘perhaps as perfect a specimen of the various processes go embroidery as could be found anywhere, and the magnificent piece of cloth of gold and velvet forming the centre should be carefully noticed.’ (Vol 213, p.38).
There is an awful lot of gold work in evidence. The couching creates density and texture while the embroidered figures composed of split stitches, satin stitches and brick stitch among others tell a story of immortality and a Christian soul on its journey to heaven -even the peacock feathers sported by the angels around St Peter speak of immortality and peacocks symbolise immortality because their feathers return better than ever each year. There are peacock feathers on the Toledo Cape as well – a reminder perhaps that just as the imogees and emoticons of today as readable there was an entire visual language of religion and belief which began to drain away with the Reformation. Perhaps just as important, the whole thing shouts abut the prestige of the Fishmonger’s Guild.
The embroiderer even used different kinds of gold thread to create the density of texture. Most gold thread was linen wrapped in sliver gilt ‘foil’ but they have also used drawn wires called ‘damask gold’ which doesn’t appear before the fourteenth century and purl thread which is a twisted coil of wire. It adds greater dimension to the coat of arms and crown. The embroideries themselves have a three dimensional look because there are padded areas that have been embroidered across. The mirror even shows a reflection because of the way that the silver thread surface of the mirror has been couched. For more information about embroidery stitches used on the pall follow http://www.zenzietinker.co.uk/opus-anglicanum/ which will open in a new tab. It also offers some excellent close up images of the pall.
The fishmongers’ pall is not the only one in existence but it is certainly the finest because of the depth of its embroideries and the finesse with which the shading has been applied – it certainly has to make you wonder what was destroyed at the time of England’s Reformation. And it also goes to show that the Reformation took something of a toll on an industry that had thrived throughout the medieval period. The embroidery on the Fishmongers’ Pall have depth and nuance that develop the earlier forms, even though the themes and images may be the same.
V and A, English Medieval Embroidery Opus Anglicanum (London and New Haven: Yale University Press)
Embroidery for horses
Who would have thought that embroidery was something that an armourer might worry about? Clearly Sir Geoffrey Luttrell pictured at the start of the post would have understood. Records show that artists were commissioned to paint various flags and horse trappings for jousts – much less expensive than employing a posse of embroiderers and quicker as well. These might be stencilled or stamped, especially if many of the same thing was required.
Sir Geoffrey’s horse seems to be covered from the end of his ears to his tail. This item is a caparison or even a trapper. Clearly it was so that the audience at a joust was able to recognise each of the contestants and they clearly had their value on ceremonial occasions. Quilted caparisons became popular during the crusades as a practical part of its protection from arrows. The horse might also be equipped with a chainmail trapper – in which case a cloth draped over the mail also helped the horse not to overheat.
If embroidery was needed, the design might be hand drawn and then stitched. Layers might be appliquéd and then embroidered. The British Museum is home to the remnants of en embroidered medieval horse trapping showing the arms of William of Fortibus, Earl of Albemarle (d. 1260). The Museé de Cluny holds some fourteenth century horse trappings manufactured in England on a ground of red velvet depicting lions. These are heavily embroidered with gilt thread and date from the reign of Edward III. Records of heraldic horse-wear can be found in many royal account books of the medieval period including royal armourers records and the royal wardrobe accounts.
Alternative sources of information about what the well-dressed-medieval-horse-about-town was wearing include Froissart’s Chronicles which depict decorated horse trappings from the fifteenth century while Les Tres Riches Heures depicts 14th century trappings. I may admit to looking forward to revisiting several of my Books of Hours texts to see how much embroidery I can spot in the illustrations. Elaborate illustrations reveal tassels, as well as jagged or leaf like edges. The same illustrations depict decorative reins. Of course, my difficulty is then to find the associated images to illustrate this post…we’ll start with Froissart and the French jousts of St Ingelvert and the Salisbury Museum’s medieval illustration of a horse harness not to mention a rather wonderful tasselled saddle cloth which is just visible.
Now – I will admit that I didn’t think that I would travel seamlessly from a post about cope chests to another linked by embroidery threads and appliqué to caparisons!
Papal preference for English embroidery and pattern books
Matthew Paris, who wrote the Chronica Major, recorded in 1246 that the Pope Innocent IV had noticed that English bishops and priests were well kitted out with copes and mitres embroidered with gold thread in the ‘most desirable fashion’. Having discovered their source and described England as a ‘garden of delights’ the pope write to the abbots of the Cistercian order and demanded similar payment for himself, noting that he rather liked the gold work. By 1295 the Vatican had more than 100 vestments described as Opus Anglicanum and the English royal family had found a new and well received gift for the Holy Father of the day and nothing about the robes and vestments were cheap.
The Ascoli Cope at Ascoli Piceno, Italy belonged to Pope Gregory X and is a fine example of English work. It was a gift to him from King Edward I who also gave Nicholas IV and Boniface VIII lots of lovely embroidered goodies.
Survivals across Europe depict some of the richness of the vestments, not to mention the skills of the embroiderers. Samuel Pepys better known for his diaries and love of a buxom wench than his historical interest left papers to Magdalene College, Cambridge which included a book of drawings dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth century, including pattern sheets for medieval glaziers – there are designs for animals and birds, people, angels, the Virgin Mary, and various decorative motifs. During the Victorian period the idea that the designs might have been used for embroiderers was discounted but the images on Gothic stained glass windows are echoed by the glittering vestments worn by the clergy.
The idea behind a model book is that all the creative crafts could draw from the same designs and adapted according to the craft whether it was embroidery, window manufacture or illuminated manuscripts. You name the decorative craft – the chances are that a model book would have been useful, especially if you wanted to create the same design on several occasions – which would help reduce production time. Not everyone could afford to arrange for an artist or illustrator to draw the design on the fabric before it was embroidered.
The Göttingen Model Book which dates to about 1450 provides instruction on penmanship and illustration for the creation of foliage – which could be adapted by embroiderers. Just as today the model books were designed to help artisans learn a skill. Seven year apprenticeships were based on observation and ‘learning on the job’ but model and pattern books were essential for the transmission of images. They would also have been helpful for wealthy patrons who wanted to commission vestments. And, by the fourteenth century wealthy patrons wanted their own clothes richly embroidered as well.
It was really only during the sixteenth century that pattern books became widely available – and lets face it anyone who could afford it decorated everything that could be stitched but by then the heyday of English work was over.
Medieval dates to remember
In my last post I presented these dates as pivotal ones – to my mind at least- to the medieval period: 1066, 1086, 1100, 1135, 1154, 1204, 1215, 1265, 1314, 1337, 1348, 1381, 1399. How did you do at identifying which events lurk in the dim recesses of my brain?
At different times, a number of you have also asked how I remember different events and dates. I guess that these particular dates act as way markers to other dates, events and significant interludes, throughout the medieval period. They’re bit like a ‘neural motorway’. I don’t need to think about them – they’re just there. And to continue the analogy, other dates are signposted along different, often more convoluted, neural pathways from the ones I automatically know.
1066 – the Norman Conquest – I don’t think that there’s anyone in the UK who wouldn’t get this date, especially after years of the Horrible Histories entertaining children and adults alike.
1086 – The Domesday Book – William I’s great book of tax and land evaluations linking back to the reign of Edward the Confessor as well as providing a snapshot of post-Conquest England (but not Cumbria because it was Scottish at that point).
1100 – Henry I ascends the throne. I think this one sticks in my head because of William Rufus’s unfortunate demise in the New Forest, Henry I’s pro-English outlook and also because his coronation charter – called the Charter of Liberties- which is a forerunner to Magna Carta. Interestingly I wouldn’t necessarily identify regnal dates as key ones, although I do know them. Also it heralds a period relative stability and we begin to see more chronicles detailing events from now onwards.
1139 – The Anarchy begins with the invasion of the Empress Matilda following the death of Henry I in 1135 and lasts for 19 years – this date is one that fans of Cadfael will remember. It’s not a particularly popular period of history these days.
1154 – Henry II, the son of Empress Matilda, ascends the throne. It’s the period of the Angevin Empire, Thomas Becket, falling out with the Pope, invading Ireland, Richard the Lion heart, the Crusades and of course King John.
1204- King John lost Normandy (which was careless) to the French. There is a new emphasis on England – bringing changes to administration, law and order and society- even if kings spend most of the rest of the medieval period trying to retrieve their former continental possessions.
1215 – turns out John gets two dates! This one is for Magna Carta.
1265 This date corresponds to the Second Barons’ War and Simon de Montfort’s Parliament – democracy is evolving. King Henry III’s reign is a lengthy one from 1216 to his death in 1272.
1314 Battle of Bannockburn – Edward II loses rather badly to the Scots. Interestingly Edward I’s reign which would include the start of the Scottish Wars of Independence in 1296 isn’t something that pops into my head in the first instance despite my interest in the history of the borders and border reivers, probably because the date is part of the back story to Tudor turbulence.
1337 King Edward III starts the Hundred Years War – which actually lasts for 116 years and is most definitely a game of two halves for those of you who don’t mind cliches.
1348 The arrival of the Black Death in England – the changes are obvious and dramatic in the first instance but, longer term, the disease contributes to the decline of feudalism and the number of women inheriting property increases as well.
1381 The Peasants’ Revolt – Up until 1381 the peasants don’t get a voice – the people who have acquired more say in the running of the country up until the end of the fourteenth century were the elite but now the peasants protest and will go on being stroppy, occasionally beheading people they don’t much like, across the next 500 years or so.
1399 Richard II is deposed by his cousin Henry of Bolingbroke, who ascends the throne as Henry IV, unleashing the delights of the Houses of York and Lancaster during the fifteenth century.
I should add that for each name on this list or key event I have a mental map of places, people and events linked with that person. – So for Richard II, in no particular order other than how my mind produced them, I have the Black Prince, Joan of Kent, John of Gaunt, poll tax, Peasant’s Revolt, the Savoy, Wat Tyler, John Ball, Mile End, Simon of Sudbury, Anne of Bohemia, Isabella of Valois, Lords Appellants, Duke of Gloucester – mattress, Wonderful and Merciless Parliaments, Chester archers, Wilton Diptych, white hart, Ireland, Conwy Castle, Flint Castle, Pontefract Castle, Froissart Chronicles, royal portrait, Geoffrey Chaucer, Sheen Palace, flushing toilet, majesty, handkerchiefs and last but not least pointy shoes. I could go on but I think its probably time to stop while I’m ahead!
For fans of the History Hit podcast, which is one of my favourite history podcasts (all of them are really good), who want to delve into the medieval world:
Medieval Colchester
There are no prizes for spotting yesterday’s typo I’m afraid. Several of you identified that instead of 1086 I managed to land in the twentieth century – the error has now been fixed. Many thanks to those of you who gave me a gentle nudge. However, today we’re back in medieval Colchester.
East Anglia became associated with sheep, wool and the cloth trade during the medieval period. Magnificent churches, such as the one at Lavenham, were built on the back of the profits. Colchester was a centre of the trade with its own market, although it was never as wealthy as Norwich. And matters weren’t helped at the turn of the thirteenth century when the Bishop of London established the town of Chelmsford which was close to a royal manor and more convenient for court sittings. However, until 1250 Colchester Castle was key to the defence of the region. The Plantagenet kings all spent time in the town.
In 1214, prior to the Barons’ War, King John showed up to try and persuade the castle’s constable, William de Lanvali, to side with him rather than the barons – to no avail. The castle did find itself under siege in 1215 having changed hands from de Lanvali, to the king’s man Stephen Harangood( who was a Flemish mercenary) and then back to de Lanvali after the signing of Magna Carta in June 1215. In March 1216, John arrived in Colchester to take the surrender of the castle garrison which was composed of 115 French troops. The garrison thought that they had safe passage to London but on leaving the castle they were all arrested. That year the castle changed hands five times but it was a few months later when an army favouring the barons looted the town. Keeping up? Good, because in 1217 Prince Louis of France reoccupied the castle on behalf of the barons. It reverted into the hands of Henry III’s regents the same year, by which time I’m guessing that the inhabitants of the town were well and truly fed up.
In 1290 Colchester’s Jewish community, nine households, were expelled from the kingdom, by Edward I under the jauntily named Edict of Expulsion. Essentially the king wished to raise taxes to fight a French campaign and parliament saw an opportunity to rid itself of the realm’s entire Jewish population. Edward’s need for funding proved greater than his desire to safeguard England’s Jews. On the same day as the edict became law the Sheriff of Essex, Henry Gropinel, received a writ to proclaim that the county’s Jewish community was to leave the kingdom by 1 November, taking with them only what they could carry. Property was forfeit to the Crown, anyone remaining might be executed but the king provided that families should be escorted to safety to prevent any harm coming to them (not always terribly successfully). Up until 1290, medieval Colchester had a synagogue on Stockwell Street. It and nine properties on Stockwell Street became Crown property. Officially, anyone Jewish was not allowed to resettle in England until 1656 unless they had a special licence.
In 1348 the Black Death arrived and two years later the castle’s principal role changed from fortification to goal.
Throughout the period there were tensions between St John’s Abbey and the town over land rights and fishing rights but the abbey wasn’t alone. The FitzWalter family held the manor of Lexden and appeared reluctant on several occasions to allow the people of Colchester their rights. In 1343, John FitzWalter accused 96 townsmen of cutting down his trees, hunting deer and taking his fish. Trespass turned into a brawl. There were injuries, a death and a protracted court case which involved jury intimidation.
Colchester even has its own chronicle, or oath book, dating from the fourteenth century written by the town clerk of the time. Morant’s History of Essex, written during the eighteenth century, contains a translation and explanation for its existence. This is one of the texts that gives us the story of St Helena originating from Colchester and being the daughter of King Coel or Cole (yup – the merry old soul) and identifies the town’s problems with the Danes in 1071. The chronology for early Colchester is not entirely accurate but as Philip Crummy observes, the archeology and the medieval account of Colchester’s past tie together remarkably well even if the inhabitants of the town mistook the Temple of Claudius for King Cole’s palace The book also contains information about the burgesses, where they lived and where they came from, deeds, wills, legal precedents and a summary of court rolls. It helps to unpick the evolution of Colchester’s civic administration and the increasing power of the burgesses. It was only in the Elizabethan period that the town clerk was required to keep more thorough records.
What I like about my study of Colchester is that many of the followers of the History Jar, and those of you who have attended various classes, will know the national history that impacts on Colchester and be familiar with key events. Seeing examples from a specific location – in this case my home town- gives context to the various patterns of development and decay that can be repeated in towns across England.
I’m only mildly concerned that the key dates that pop up in my head for medieval history are 1066, 1086, 1100, 1139, 1154, 1204, 1215, 1265, 1314, 1337, 1348, 1381, 1399. The fifteenth century and the Wars of the Roses have their own set of dates lurking at the back of my mind. Of course, you may have different dates entirely that act as your historical reference points. But can you identify the key events which I work around when I navigate medieval history from the Normans onwards. I’ll provide the answers in my next post. You’ll be relieved to hear that I won’t be doing the same for the fifteenth century!
Crummy, Philip, Aspects of Anglo-Saxon and Norman Colchester, (Colchester: Colchester Archeological Trust, 1981)
As a complete aside I’m quite tickled by a discovery made during my search on the Internet for Morant’s History of Essex – regional colouring books for adults depicting the past as well as the present. There’s one for Yorkshire, Hampshire, Cumbria and even one for castles that I spotted in my cursory search. They’re produced by The History Press (what will they come up with next?). I’m thinking that images from the books could be an excellent basis for a blackwork embroidery- because let’s face it I do love my history in many shapes and forms. I’ll also admit to being tempted by the Great Tapestry of Scotland Colouring Book – the original is currently housed in Galashiels…whether the whole experience would be a mindful one is another matter entirely.
Power and the people – the troubled fifteenth century.
Parliament was summoned in September 1399 because King Richard II had been deposed by his cousin, Henry of Bolingbroke, the eldest son of John of Gaunt. Parliament unanimously accepted the 33 articles of deposition on 1 October and a fortnight later Henry IV was crowned king. Effectively, Henry used parliament to validate his actions and to give authority to his reign. Of course one of the difficulties was that Richard had already by deposed so there was technically no monarch to open the so called Convention Parliament which was then recalled after the 13th October in the name of Henry IV.
Parliament increasingly recognised that it held the right to withhold new taxes. It used this power to withhold funds until it got what it wanted from the monarch and in 1414, the Commons successfully ensured that it was them rather than the Lords who held the power in voting taxes for the king or not. By the time Henry V died in 1422 there could be no taxation and no new laws without parliamentary agreement, and more importantly it was the Commons who wielded the stronger power.
As the fifteenth century progressed Parliament was often used to pass acts of attainder against either the Yorkist or Lancastrian nobility depending which side was in the ascendent and by kings to justify why they should be on the throne. The monarchy was still powerful but because of the challenges it faced during the fifteenth century parliament was growing in importance and felt more able to challenge the king, even if he was still on the throne by Divine Right. King’s validated their rule through acts of Parliament and by using acts of attainder to punish men who fought against them.
revolting peasants and chartists
The G.C.S. E question worth 8 marks asks students to explain two ways in which the Peasants’ Revolt and the campaign for the People’s Charter were similar. This is not a complete answer. It could be developed and tweaked but it covers the key points. It raises the interesting question of what other key events in British history might be compared – for instance could Chartism be compared to the English Civil War? And what else could the Peasants’ Revolt be compared with – certainly to the French and American revolutions.
The Peasants Revolt of 1381 and Chartism which was most active for the decade between 1838 and 1848 were both about ordinary people trying to improve their lives with more freedom or a greater say in how their lives were governed. In both cases, economics had a part to play. The peasants of 1381 were tied by serfdom, the wage limits of the 1351 Statute of Labourers that kept pay to pre-Black Death rates and by the poor harvests that followed the Black Death and the impact of the medieval mini Ice Age. Trade was also badly impacted by piracy resulting from the Hundred Years War and the French raids on the Isle of Wight and southern ports including Rye. The 1830s saw bad harvests and the impact of the corn laws keeping bread prices artificially high.
In 1831, peasants wanted their freedom from a feudal hierarchy that saw 40% of them described as serfs, unable to leave the manor where they lived without their lord’s permission, to work without pay and to pay feudal dues including the right to inherit their father’s property. They also wished to abolish the poll taxes that saw everyone over 15-years-old paying the same taxes, whatever their rank in society. Wat Tyler demanded that corrupt officials should be punished. During the Nineteenth century the ordinary working classes were disappointed by the failure of the 1832 Reform Act to give people more rights and in 1833 the Factory Act failed to limit the working day to 10 hours. For those who fell into poverty there was also the impact of the 1834 Poor Law Act which forced paupers into workhouses and made poverty a crime to be punished. Ordinary people in Medieval England and the Nineteenth Century felt that there should be better wages and living conditions for everyone not just the elite. The Chartists demanded regular elections and full male suffrage, ending the 40 shilling property bar that prevented most adults from voting.
The peasants were united in their demands and turned to violence to ensure that evidence of their servitude was destroyed and that local JPs and churchmen were punished. Simon Sudbury, one of Richard II’s advisors and the Archbishop of Canterbury was murdered by the peasants when they were let into London. The Chartists were more divided in the way that their goals could be achieved. Some of them preferred argument and moral force but in the end violence was less easy to ignore. In 1837, Feargus O’Connor, an Irish lawyer living in Leeds, published the Northern Star, a newspaper that campaigned for better wages and living standards. O’Connor supported Physical Force Chartism, which championed using violent means. He felt that even if the violence was negative, that in the long term there would be positive outcomes.
The Chartists were emulating the men and women who were part of the reform movement that led to the Peterloo Massacre of 1819. The event, named after Waterloo, was something of a turning point for the working classes in the nineteenth century. The meeting in Manchester asking for universal male suffrage ended in chaos and 11 deaths when the authorities seized Henry Hunt, a political reformer. Some people blamed the violence on the authorities while others blamed the 60,000 strong crowd. The poet, Shelley, urged the working classes to ‘rise like lions from slumber’ but his words weren’t published until 1832. The authorities wanted to keep the country calm but they feared a revolution of the kind that happened in France. On 4 November 1839, 10,000 Welsh Chartists at Newport, many of them miners, were waylaid by soldiers. Between 22 and 24 of the protesters were killed. The chartists who were not armed really stood no chance – something of a difference to the peasants of 1381 who were armed with whatever they could find and who had killed justices and churchmen during May and June 1381. The Newport chartists’ leader, John Frost, was sentenced to be executed along with several other men who were at the forefront of the campaign – it was the same fate of hanging drawing and quartering that befell the leaders of the Peasant’s Revolt. For John Frost and other chartists the sentence was changed to transportation.
The cost of keeping the History Jar up and running has led me to opt to become an Amazon Associate rather than to extend any advertising. Every time someone clicks on a book cover they will be taken to Amazon. A purchase will result in a commission being paid to me. In future the caption under any image of a book, or anything else that matter, which I have added as a link as an Amazon associate will simply state ‘I am an Amazon associate’ and the information will appear on the ‘About me’ page the blog.
Something for any G.C.S.E. students or anyone interested in the concept of power and the people.
